Jurisdictional procedure guides
Legal framework, competent authorities and restitution procedures by country. These guides are a starting point for legal research and do not replace legal advice.
These guides are provided for informational purposes and do not constitute legal advice. Consult a specialised lawyer before initiating any proceedings.
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Switzerland
Legal framework
Federal Act on the International Transfer of Cultural Property (CPTA, SR 444.1), in force since 1 June 2005. Transposes the 1970 UNESCO Convention. Code of Obligations (CO) art. 934 (claim for stolen property, 5-year period, 30 years for cultural property). Civil Code (CC) art. 714, 728 (bona fide acquisition). Regulations of the Swiss Association of Auction Houses (ASVV) requiring due diligence.
Competent authority
Federal Office of Culture (FOC), specialised cultural property transfer unit. For seizures: public prosecutor of the relevant canton. For mediation: possibility of using mediation offered by the Federal Insurance Court or specialised private mediators.
Restitution procedure
1. Identify the object in reference databases (INTERPOL, ALR, national databases). 2. Build the provenance file documenting the loss or looting. 3. File a restitution request with the current holder or canton. 4. If refused: civil claim for recovery (CC art. 641) before the civil court where the property is located. 5. Time limit: 1 year from knowledge of location and holder (CC art. 936), 30 years for cultural property (CO art. 934 para. 1bis). 6. Alternative: precautionary seizure by the public prosecutor in case of suspected receiving.
Priority databases to consult
INTERPOL Stolen Works of Art, The Art Loss Register, Banca Dati Leonardo, Lost Art Database (for the 1933-1945 period), Proveana.
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France
Legal framework
Heritage Code (L. 111-1 et seq.), Act of 21 February 2022 on the restitution of cultural property (antisemitic looting 1933-1945). Civil Code art. 2276 (possession amounts to title) and exceptions for stolen goods (art. 2276 para. 2: claim within 3 years). Savary-Le Foll Act of 2024 on colonial restitutions. Mattei Circular of 1 April 1997 (MNR).
Competent authority
Research and Restitution Mission for Cultural Property Looted Between 1933 and 1945 (M2RS, Ministry of Culture). Commission for the Compensation of Victims of Spoliation (CIVS). Central Office for the Fight Against Cultural Property Trafficking (OCBC).
Restitution procedure
1933-1945 spoliations: direct application to CIVS (free, adversarial investigation, recommendation to the Prime Minister). Since the 2022 Act: restitution possible by decree without legislative divestiture. Thefts: complaint to OCBC, recovery action (3 years, Civil Code art. 2276 para. 2, 5 years if purchased at fair/public sale). Colonial contexts: application to the Ministry of Culture, state-to-state diplomatic procedure.
Priority databases to consult
Base Rose-Valland (MNR) via POP, ERR Project Jeu de Paume, INTERPOL, The Art Loss Register, Central Registry (Lootedart.com).
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Germany
Legal framework
Cultural Property Protection Act (KGSG, 2016), transposing EU Directive 2014/60. Washington Principles (1998) and Terezin Declaration (2009), non-binding but applied by the Deutsches Zentrum Kulturgutverluste. BGB sec. 935 (no bona fide acquisition of stolen goods). Recommendations of the Limbach Commission (advisory commission).
Competent authority
Deutsches Zentrum Kulturgutverluste (German Centre for Cultural Property Losses), Magdeburg. Advisory Commission (Limbach Commission). Landesbehoerden (regional Land authorities).
Restitution procedure
Nazi looting: application to the Deutsches Zentrum or referral to the Advisory Commission (by mutual consent). Search Lost Art Database and Proveana. Public museums are required to proactively check their collections. Illicitly exported cultural property: return procedure under KGSG (action before administrative court). Antiquities: provenance documentation requirement for all imports (KGSG sec. 28 et seq.).
Priority databases to consult
Lost Art Database, Proveana, Provenienzdatenbank Bund (KVdB), Arolsen Archives, INTERPOL.
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United States
Legal framework
National Stolen Property Act (NSPA, 18 USC sec. 2314-2315). Convention on Cultural Property Implementation Act (CPIA, 19 USC sec. 2601 et seq., implementing the 1970 UNESCO Convention). Holocaust Expropriated Art Recovery Act (HEAR Act, 2016). Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA, 1990). Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act (FSIA) for disputes involving foreign states.
Competent authority
FBI Art Crime Team (thefts and trafficking). Department of Homeland Security / Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) for illicit imports. Department of the Interior, National NAGPRA Program (indigenous repatriation). Federal courts (District Courts) for civil recovery actions.
Restitution procedure
Thefts: FBI Art Crime Team complaint, registration in NSAF. Civil recovery action (replevin) before Federal Courts. Nazi looting: HEAR Act provides a 6-year period from actual or constructive discovery. Illicitly imported antiquities: seizure by ICE/CBP, civil forfeiture action. NAGPRA: formal request to the holding institution (any institution receiving federal funds is subject to NAGPRA).
Priority databases to consult
National Stolen Art File (NSAF), INTERPOL, The Art Loss Register, NEPIP Archive, National NAGPRA.
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United Kingdom
Legal framework
Dealing in Cultural Objects (Offences) Act 2003. Holocaust (Stolen Art) Restitution Act 2009. Limitation Act 1980 (6 years for conversion claims, title extinguished). Spoliation Advisory Panel (SAP) for goods in public collections. Treasure Act 1996 and Portable Antiquities Scheme for archaeological finds.
Competent authority
Metropolitan Police Art and Antiques Unit. Spoliation Advisory Panel (Department for Culture, Media and Sport). HM Revenue & Customs for illicit imports.
Restitution procedure
Nazi looting in public collections: referral to the Spoliation Advisory Panel (non-binding recommendation, but generally followed). Thefts: complaint to the Metropolitan Police Art and Antiques Unit. Civil conversion action before County Courts or High Court. Note: the Limitation Act 1980 may extinguish the original owner's title after 6 years in case of conversion.
Priority databases to consult
INTERPOL, The Art Loss Register, Central Registry (Lootedart.com), UK National Archives Looted Art 1939-1961.
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Italy
Legal framework
Cultural Heritage and Landscape Code (D.Lgs. 42/2004). Cultural property discovered on Italian territory belongs to the State (art. 91). 1995 UNIDROIT Convention (ratified). Acquisitive prescription: excluded for public cultural domain property (art. 822 Civil Code).
Competent authority
Comando Carabinieri per la Tutela del Patrimonio Culturale (TPC). Ministry of Culture, Directorate General of Archaeology. Public Prosecutor (criminal prosecution).
Restitution procedure
Illicitly excavated antiquities: report to Carabinieri TPC, criminal investigation, confiscation and restitution to the State. Illegally exported goods: diplomatic procedure based on bilateral agreements (notably with the US, Switzerland and Germany). Italy is the world's most active country in antiquities restitution, with over 3 million objects recovered since 1969.
Priority databases to consult
Banca Dati Leonardo (Carabinieri TPC), INTERPOL, The Art Loss Register.